As the Reformed community increasingly embraces a supernatural interpretation of scripture (see my articles on the Divine Council), significant opposition has emerged. Critics contend that recognizing the "gods" as real, created beings with power contradicts Reformed confessions, labeling it as non-confessional and in violation of Reformed doctrine. They assert this is heresy, it leans towards anti-trinitarianism, and they deny that these gods are actual entities.
This article seeks to show that none of the historical Reformed confessions explicitly discuss the existence of gods or demons. The section most commonly referenced to deny the existence of other gods is found under "God and the Holy Trinity" in the confessions.
After reviewing the confessions, we will examine writings from Reformed theologians to show that many historically understood these gods as real, living beings rather than mere idols or products of pagan imagination.
Finally, we will explore how theological understanding has developed over time.
Let’s Define our Doctrines
It is crucial to clarify the specific type of theology being defined. The confusion arises when distinct categories—such as the doctrine of God and the doctrine of the spiritual realm—are blended. Acknowledging that the Bible speaks of a spiritual realm inhabited by created spiritual beings (such as angels and demons) and that it sometimes uses the Hebrew term elohim (translated as "gods" in English) is a separate discussion from the nature of God. The Doctrine of God specifically addresses God’s nature, not the spiritual realm. Citing the confession concerning God and the Holy Trinity to support arguments about spiritual beings misapplies theological categories. There is no dispute that God is unique—the one true and living God—meaning that he exists in and of himself, requiring nothing to sustain his life and being eternally self-sufficient. In contrast, the spiritual realm does not possess life in this way; it is entirely dependent on Yahweh as the source of life. The confusion in this discussion largely stems from how English words are used in biblical translation.
This article will show that all Reformed confessions focus on the doctrine of God and do not provide an in-depth discussion of the spiritual realm or the created beings within it, which are sometimes referred to as gods.
Let’s Define Our Terms
Most modern Bible translations use the English word "God" to render the Hebrew word elohim and the Greek word theos. For many Christians today, "God" has become synonymous with Yahweh, often represented as "LORD" in all caps in English translations. However, the Bible does not use elohim as a personal name but rather to describe beings from the spiritual realm. Just as humans exist in the physical world, elohim—or "gods" in English—exist in the spiritual realm. I’ve written an entire article exploring how the Bible uses elohim and theos here.
Some may find this surprising, but it is not a new concept in Christianity or the Reformed tradition. Joseph Caryl (1602–1673), a member of the Westminster Assembly, wrote:
"Furthermore, the word Elohim is used in Scripture not only for the true God Himself but also at times for angels, idols, demon gods, and false gods. As Exodus 18:11 states, 'Now I know that the LORD is greater than all gods,' referring to all the idols the Egyptians trusted in." Commentary on Job.
To clarify further, elohim is a term used to describe spiritual beings who dwell in the spiritual realm. The Old Testament contains several instances where Yahweh is depicted among other beings who also bear the title elohim: "For the LORD (Yahweh) is a great God (Elohim), and a great King above all gods (elohim)" (Psalm 95:3).
However, while these other elohim are spiritual beings like Yahweh, they do not possess His incommunicable attributes. Yahweh is the creator of all things, including all other elohim. Though Yahweh is elohim (a spiritual being), He alone is self-sufficient, eternal, and all-powerful—attributes not shared with any other elohim. There is only one living, eternal, and all-powerful Elohim, and He is identified as Yahweh. This is why Psalm 95 declares, “For the LORD (Yahweh) is a great God (Elohim).” The psalmist highlights Yahweh’s supremacy over all other spiritual beings. The Bible reinforces this by describing Him as the Most High, the God of gods, and the King above all gods.
In summary, elohim is not an exclusive title for Yahweh but a term used to describe spiritual beings in the unseen realm. When encountering this word in Scripture, context is key in determining whether it refers to the one true, eternal God—the Creator of all things—or to a created spiritual being, such as an angel. Recognizing this distinction helps us better understand what the confession says about this category of beings.
Do the confessions reject the existence of other gods?
A thorough search of the following confessions reveals that "gods" are not mentioned anywhere. Likewise, the term "demons" is absent, though the Belgic Confession does reference devils. However, these references do not contribute significantly to our discussion. As a result, the confessions provide no direct guidance on interpreting these beings in the biblical text—except for one key point: they are not Yahweh.
Below is a summary of what each confession states about God and how He is distinct from other beings referred to as gods. To maintain brevity, I have omitted repetitive sections, as they primarily emphasize Yahweh’s incommunicable attributes—qualities that belong to Him alone. For example, while created beings have knowledge, Yahweh is omniscient; while created beings occupy space, Yahweh is omnipresent; while created beings exercise power, Yahweh is omnipotent.
Belgic Confession: We all believe in our hearts and confess with our mouths that there is a single and simple spiritual being, whom we call God—eternal… (Article 1)
Thirty-Nine Articles: There is but one living and true God, everlasting… (Article 1)
Westminster Confession: There is but one only living and true God, who is infinite in being… (ch. 2.1)
Savoy Declaration: There is but one only living and true God, who is infinite in being and perfection… (ch.2.1)
1689 London Baptist Confession: The Lord our God is but one only living and true God; whose subsistence is in and of Himself, infinite… (ch.2.1)
I was interested in exploring whether the Westminster Assembly discussed the concept of gods. Here’s what I found, which closely aligns with the confession:
Session 829: Ordered—Q. Are there more Gods than one? A. There is but one only, the living and true God. Resolved upon the Q., Q. What are the properties of God? A. God is almighty, all-sufficient, eternal…
Both the confessions and the Westminster Assembly make it clear that they are speaking specifically of the one true, eternal God—Yahweh. As affirmed in both scripture and the confessions, there is only one eternal God, and that is Yahweh. Any being that claims equality with the infinite God is a deceiver, making them a false god attempting to rival the Eternal One.
The language and grammar used in each confession, along with the explicitly stated attributes of this being, make it clear that they describe a unique, uncreated being. There is only one who inherently possesses these divine attributes, and He alone is to be worshiped. Nothing in the confessions suggests that the term "gods" refers exclusively to idols or imaginary beings. To understand the nature of these beings, we must turn to the Bible itself.
As I explained in my article on the use of Elohim and Theos, the English word "God" is not simply another name for Yahweh but a descriptor of a type of being. The confessions specifically describe Yahweh—the unique God—distinguished by His divine attributes as outlined in their texts.
Many point to the phrase "one only living and true God" to argue that other gods are not truly living. However, key modifiers clarify its intended meaning. For instance, the 1689 London Baptist Confession begins with “The Lord our God,” immediately distinguishing Yahweh from any other being called a god. The Christian God—Yahweh—is the only living one with the attributes described in the confession: "whose subsistence is in and of Himself, infinite…" These Reformed confessions do not compare similar beings (such as one angel to another) but rather emphasize the absolute uniqueness of the Lord God—Yahweh—who alone is the eternal Creator.
As previously mentioned, our confessions offer no guidance on the broader biblical use of elohim beyond defining the nature of Yahweh. Whether one believes that all other gods are merely idols or that they are real spiritual beings, such as angels and demons, is not anticonfessional, as the confession remains silent on the matter.
Did all the Reformed throughout history reject the existence of the gods? NO!
The goal of this article is not to defend the existence or nature of these other elohim, but simply to demonstrate that the confessions are silent on the matter. I have been encouraged to read the works of those who authored the confessions or were closely associated with them to understand the theology behind these documents better. This is a wise and appropriate approach to clarifying sections that may be less explicit.
However, claiming that there was a universally agreed-upon view regarding the spiritual realm—and precisely the existence of other gods—is inaccurate. While many did regard the gods as idols, demons, or mere products of pagan imagination, my research has uncovered numerous Reformed and Puritan authors who viewed these gods as real beings, often citing Satan as an example, referring to him as "the god of this world."
I will explore this in greater depth in the next section, but it is crucial to recognize that theology has continually developed throughout history. Many topics were omitted from the confessions either because there was no final consensus on them or because they were not subjects of debate at the time. Regarding the supernatural interpretation of the Bible, the Reformed tradition has encompassed a range of perspectives. Even the Reformers occasionally expressed contradictory views across different writings and commentaries.
Are the gods living?
These quotes are taken from commentaries on 2 Corinthians 4:4, where Paul refers to Satan as "the god of this world."
Thomas Goodwin (1600-1680 Puritan): “Even Satan, that evil spirit, the god of this world,' who (as it is said, 2 Cor. iv. 4) blinded these heathens. This he clearly insinuates to them (and puts it in, as in opposition to their now having the Spirit of God) in these words, ' Ye were led after dumb idols.' Led, even as brute beasts are at the pleasure of them that possess them; and led by some other spirit than their own.” - The Works of Thomas Goodwin (p. 60-61).
Goodwin presents a significant argument: while they did worship "dumb idols," they were influenced by "some other spirit than their own"—specifically, the god of this world, Satan. He viewed Satan as a spirit capable of bearing the title of god.
“Of the devil there is an express place, 2 Cor. iv. 4, where the Apostle calleth him ' the god of this world ; ' it is all one with that in John xii. 31, where he is called 'the prince of this world.' He is by the Apostle in one place called the god of this world, and by Christ in another the prince of this world ; and you have as clear a place that the good angels are called gods too, and that in this respect ; it is in Ps. xcvii 7, ' Worship him, all ye gods ;' now look in Heb. i. 6, where the Apostle quoteth it, and interpreteth it to be meant of the good angels, “Let all the angels of God worship him ; ' they are gods, and gods because they are chief princes, as you heard before.” - SERMON XXXII on Ephesians 1:21-22 (page 489)
John Calvin (1509-1564 Reformer): “No one that judges rightly can have any doubt, that it is of Satan that the Apostle speaks…. For the subterfuge of the Arians was childish — that if the devil is called the god of this world, the name of God, as applied to Christ, does not express a true, eternal, and exclusive divinity. For Paul says elsewhere, many are called gods, (1 Corinthians 8:5;) but David, on the other hand, sings forth — the gods of the nations are demons. 255 (Psalm 96:5.)… There is, therefore, no reason for being afraid to interpret this passage as referring to the devil, there being no danger in doing so.” – Calvin’s Commentary on 2 Cor 4:4.
Calvin's argument was directed at those who believed that calling Satan a god would undermine Jesus being called God. In several paragraphs, which you can read in the provided link, he clearly explains that referring to Satan as a god does not contradict Jesus' nature or the godhead.
Thomas Manton (1620-1677 Puritan): “Satan hath a tyrannical usurped power. So the devils are called ' rulers of the darkness of this world,' Eph. vi. 12, the blind, idolatrous, superstitious world; and Satan is called ' The prince of this world,' John xiv. 30, and ' The God of this world,' 2 Cor. iv. 4.” The Complete Works of Thomas Manton (p. 247).
John Flavel: “For alas! while I am reasoning, Satan is blinding their minds with false reasonings and contrary persuasions; the god of this world turns away the ears, and draws away the hearts of almost the whole world from Christ; " The god of this world " hath blinded the minds of them which believe not, lest the light " of the glorious gospel of Christ, who is the image of God, " should shine unto them." - The Whole Works of John Flavel (p. 451).
I cite these quotes simply to demonstrate that they acknowledge Satan as a god and a living being—not merely an idol or an imaginary figure. I am not suggesting that all these writers fully agreed on the identity of the gods in every Old Testament passage, as there are differences among them regarding texts like Psalm 82 and Deuteronomy 32. However, in cases such as 2 Corinthians 4:4, Paul’s meaning is so clear that it is difficult to dispute.
To claim that the confessions and the Reformed tradition unanimously affirm that only Yahweh is a living God while all other gods are not is neither historically, confessionally, nor biblically accurate.
The development of theological understandings throughout history
The word Trinity is not found in the Bible, yet it represents a thoroughly biblical doctrine. It emerged from theological debates aimed at clarifying Christ’s nature within the triune Godhead. After centuries of discussion, the church reached a final, agreed-upon conclusion—one that Christianity continues to affirm today.
Why is this relevant? Because, at one point, there was no universally accepted definition of the Trinity. Theologians had to wrestle with Scripture to develop their understanding. The same is true of Calvinism. Augustine was among the first to engage in serious discussions about human nature and God’s sovereignty in his debate with Pelagius. However, it wasn’t until after John Calvin’s death that the five points of Calvinism, as embraced by the Reformed tradition today, were formally articulated—a process that took over a thousand years from the initial debate to its resolution.
Covenant theology is another example. The three covenants central to Reformed theology—redemption, works, and grace—were not fully developed until the 17th century. While elements of these concepts existed throughout church history, no single book or author had fully systematized them until after the Reformation had begun.
At any point in this timeline of theological development, one could argue that certain ideas are new to Christianity and therefore should be rejected. The danger of this mindset is the assumption that we have fully developed all areas of theology and that nothing should be examined or reevaluated in the future. This perspective contradicts our historical confessions, which call us to return to Scripture as our final authority in all debates.
Believing in lowercase gods who exist on a divine council does not contradict our history or confession. While it is clear that this understanding is not as fully developed as other doctrines we hold today, asserting that the Bible is silent on or hardly addresses the subject is also inaccurate, as I have demonstrated in my previous articles.
Conclusion:
Believing that spiritual beings exist in the spiritual realm and are sometimes referred to as gods is not anti-confessional, as the confessions are largely silent on this doctrine. Once again, acknowledging the existence of created beings described as gods (such as Satan being called the "god of this world" in 2 Corinthians 4:4) is not an attack on the nature of God—these are two distinct doctrines.
The growing recognition of a supernatural worldview marks an important shift for modern Christians. While some misguided theology has emerged from those embracing this perspective, it is time for us in the Reformed tradition to engage thoughtfully and rigorously with this topic. Passages like Ephesians 6:12 remind us that our churches and families are contending with real spiritual forces that can lead them astray. We must turn to Christ and rely on His strength to stand against this spiritual opposition.
If we continue to deny their reality, we leave ourselves vulnerable to their influence.
In my next article, I will address the idea of the confessions and the divine council.
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